International Hrm And Comparative Hrm Management Essay

International Hrm And Comparative Hrm Management Essay The growth in international trade and globalisation has encouraged firms to expand their operations worldwide, which has resulted in the emergence of new markets such as China, India, South East Asia and Latin America. This trend has also been accompanied by an increased level of competition amongst firms at both national and international level. The challenge of managing a workforce worldwide with different cross-cultural skills, competencies and demographic characteristics means that managers can no longer rely on traditional HRM models developed for Anglo-Saxon countries. Many firms underestimate the complexities involved in international operations, and there is some evidence to suggest that business failures in the international arena may often be linked to poor management of human resources (Desatnick Bennett, 1978). Western academics and practitioners have thus moved from traditional international HRM issues to the area of comparative HRM. In order to maximize cross-national management capabilities, there is need to understand how employees in different national settings respond to similar concepts within their particular functions. This essay has been structured as follows. In the next section, I will examine the difference between international and comparative HRM. I will then look at the way comparative HRM assist academics and practitioners appreciate the differences in the strategies and processes in MNCs. A conclusion is then presented. Difference between international and comparative HRM International HRM has been defined as HRM issues, functions, policies and practices that result from the strategic activities of MNEs (Scullion, 1995). IHRM deals principally with issues and problems associated with the globalisation of capitalism. It involves the same elements as domestic HRM but is more complex to manage, in terms of the diversity of national contexts and types of workers. The emphasis is on the MNCs ability to attract, develop and deploy talented employees in a multinational setting and to get them to work effectively despite differences in culture, language and locations. International HRM tends to mitigate the impact of national culture and national employment practice against corporate culture and practices. Comparative HRM, on the other hand, is a systematic method of investigation that seeks to explain the patterns and variations encountered in cross-national HRM rather than simply describe HRM institutions and practices in different societies. According to comparative HRM literature, different national business systems arise from differences in specific historical, cultural and institutional heritage in certain countries. Comparative differences occur due to decisive historical events such as the process of industrialisation or due to the legacy of pre-modern forms of social organisation. Hofstedes (1980) adopted the culturalist perspective where he argued that national business styles emerge due to ingrained cultural attitudes and mental schemas. He described culture under five dimensions which are power distance, individualism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance and long-term orientation. Other researchers claim that HR management practices differ between nations due to the presence of specifically national institutions such as education, banking services or state/legal support. In what ways (if at all) does an understanding of comparative HRM assist academics and HR practitioners appreciate the difference in the strategies and processes in MNCs which are often termed as International HRM? The contrasted view to a divergence point mentioned above is that some academics claim that with HRM policies and practices are becoming universal (tending more towards the dominant American models) and that country-of-origin effects are no longer relevant. The pressure to build standardised operations internationally is strongest in sectors where competition is highly internationalised and where firms compete on the basis of a similar product or service across countries such as in cars and fast foods. They have put forward several reasons to explain this trend. Firstly, all MNCs operate in one global market and therefore have to respond to the same environmental pressures such as globalisation and technology, the growth in international trade and the move towards an internationally-integrated financial system. Secondly, the widespread practice of benchmarking best practice in terms of cost, quality and productivity may also have contributed to convergence of international HRM models for e.g. Japanese style lean-production system in the 1980s and 1990s. Moreover, these pressures towards convergence stem in part from the influence of MNCs themselves through their ability to transfer practices across borders and erode country-of-origin effects. Finally, the formation and development of like-minded international cadres mostly from American or European business schools may have contributed to homogenised international HRM policies and practices. Since the early 1990s, the international HRM literature has been dominated by models and typologies aimed at identifying how international HR fits with organisational strategy. Bartlett and Ghoshal (1998) argue that the main issue for all multinational companies is the need to trade-off the advantages global efficiency namely the coordination of its operations to achieve economies of scale and scope as opposed to the need to differentiate its products and services to meet the local demands. They also identified a third pressure, namely worldwide innovation and learning, whereby firms are encouraged to support innovation and learning across their network of subsidiaries rather than simply relying on research and development at the headquarters. MNEs then follow the appropriate HRM policies and practices according to the structure of the organisation, the competitive strategy chosen or stage of corporate evolution reached. Below, the Taylors (1996) model of strategic international HRM has been described. Exportive This is essentially a model where the HQ management takes home country management approach and try to implement them in their foreign subsidiaries in order to achieve economies of scale. In this model, there is a system of hierarchy and a centralised control. This is especially useful in instances of uncertain political environment and high risks demanding greater control from corporate parents. Given this pattern of centralisation, there is a considerable amount of forward policy transfer and less reverse transfer from subsidiaries to the HQ, i.e. they rely mainly on the technical know-how of the parent company. Global firms offer products or services that are standardised to enable production to be carried in a cost-efficient way. Their subsidiaries are not subject to rigid control except over the quality and the presentation of the product or service. This structure is normally associated with the American firms with their formalised, bureaucratic control and a dominant finance sy stem to internalise risks. Adaptive Differences in the host environment demands and conditions mean that overseas subsidiaries have to operate independently. This is common where departing from established practices in host environments is unlawful. For example, in some Germany, there is a legal obligation to negotiate with employee representatives concerning major organisational changes. In other cases, transferring practices may be legal but would go against traditional practices at the risk of losing goodwill from staff. Firms may decide to forgo HQ control if there is the possibility to exploit most efficiently the local labour markers. For example, MNCs which origin from high-cost highly regulated economies such as Germany may well choose not to transfer important elements of their HR systems such as collective bargaining or apprenticeship if they move to lower wage, lightly regulated economies such as China. Integrative It is also argued that the more management processes and activities can be integrated across geographical boundaries, the easier it is to share resources and knowledge. They can identify and best use the skill and management talent that exists across the MNC network allowing for both global integration and local differentiation. As mentioned previously, international HRM processes consist of the same activities as domestic HRM but applied in an international context. These include an accurate human resource planning to ensure that the MNCs have the right people at the right place around the world, good staffing policies that capitalise on the world-wide expertise of expatriates and locals, performance appraisals that fit with the competitive strategies of the HQ, adequate training and development to ensure that expatriates do not suffer from culture shock and compensation policies that are strategically and culturally relevant. The focus in international HRM strategy is how MNEs coordinate their geographically dispersed operations strengthening the organisational culture, promoting commitment and encouraging willingness in employees to act in the interests of the firm. Recruitment and selection of international managers Employees play a crucial role in sustaining and coordinating their geographically dispersed operations. The challenge is that of resourcing international operations with people of the right calibre. Traditionally, MNEs sent expatriates, i.e. a parent country national abroad to ensure that the policies and procedures set by the parent -company were being followed as well as to bring expertise to the local employees. However, the high number of expatriate failures has meant that more and more MNEs are turning to host country nationals to satisfy the international staffing needs. The prominent reason to explain international assignment failures was the inability of the expatriate or his family to cope with the culture shock. Researchers revealed that international business travellers faced problems in their personal lives and were victims of stress. Moreover, changes in legislative conditions affecting labour relations combined with security issues have made it more costly to use expatr iates at senior management positions at subsidiary level. The advantages of employing local nationals are that they are familiar with local markets, the local communities, the cultural setting and the local economy. They speak the local language and are culturally assimilated. They can take a long-view and contribute for a long period (as distinct from expatriates who are likely to take a short-term perspective). Expatriates are only used as technical troubleshooters and general management operatives. This means academics need to find the best ways to recruit and select local managers and help them cultivate a global perspective rather than a narrow outlook on how to conduct business in the local environment. International pay and reward and performance management The concept fair pay and reward is also subject to different interpretations depending on the national business system. Triandis (1998) differentiated between vertical cultures which accept hierarchy as given whereas horizontal cultures accept equality as given. In individualistic cultures, there are few rules and norms about correct behaviour and employees expect to be rewarded on their own merits and performance. Countries like US feature at the higher end of the individualistic spectrum. On the other hand, collectivism emerges in societies that have many rules and regulations about correct behaviour. In these societies, employees accept rewards or recognition on the basis of their seniority, efficiency and conformity with the organisational values rather than on the basis of their creativity or professionalism (Pascale and Athos, 1981). China is an example of a collectivist society. In such societies, rewards for individual performance or differentiating between employees are not acceptable. Indeed, the prevailing view is that it takes the contribution from everyone to achieve continuous improvement (kaizen) in Japanese enterprise. Singling one employee may cause him to lose face and consequently a loss of goodwill for the expatriate manager. Moreover, an understanding of the body language is vital for senior expatriate managers when providing feedbacks. While in individualistic society, it is perfectly acceptable for a subordinate to participate in a discussion with his senior, in collectivist societies such as India, disagreeing with ones supervisor is considered disrespectful. Furthermore, countries like Korea and Taiwan prefer more subtle ways of communicating feedbacks. Up-front reprimand or performance appraisal is likely to clash with the societys norms of harmony and the employees may view it as a personal affront. Understanding these local customs and mapping them across countries is an exciting field of study for researchers interested in global performance management systems. Training and development Training and development is vital to ensure that the workforce remains competent and flexible by developing the know-how thought necessary for success in the company and on the job. Scholars have highlighted the importance of national culture on training and development in terms of the hard and soft approach. The hard approach views employees in the organisation as a mere resource to achieve goals of the organisation while the soft approach views them more as valued assets capable of development (Tyson and Fell, 1986). This approach obviously influence the level amount of institutional (percentage GDP) spent on education. The German tradition adopts the soft approach and relies on formal apprenticeship, functional rotation and career path where technical expertise is gradually developed. UK which support the hard approach, believes that the individual is responsible for funding his own education and career advancement. This difference in national training and education systems will m ean that the skill and competence profile of the workers available on the labour market will vary from one country to another. Comparative studies have also shown that there are national differences in the way that managerial careers and management development are organised. Both Japan and France rely on elite recruitment, that is, future managers are decided at the point of entry based on their exceptional qualifications. This contrasts with the American belief of self-improvement where the philosophy is its never too late to change. Also, there are also noticeable differences in the teaching and learning style across countries. The idea of working in groups is more natural to Asian than individualist Anglo-Saxon managers. German and Swiss managers favour structured learning environments and coming to the right answers and are tolerant of confrontation. Asian countries, in contrast, are more concerned about status differences and may be unwilling to exchange ideas against their mentors. This will consequently impact on the format of delivering training for the practitioner, whereby the Asian employees might prefer lecture-type training and German and Swiss might prefer the seminar-type interpersonal interaction. Employment relations Finally, the type of employee relations pursued by the MNE depends principally on the national business systems characteristics of the both the home and host countries. According to Hall and Soskice (2001), there are two varieties of capitalism: Liberated market economies and coordinated market economies. In liberal market economies, firms coordinate their activities primarily via hierarchies and competitive market arrangements. Market relations are characterised by arms length exchange of goods and services and formal contracting. The demand and supply of goods and services are regulated though market mechanisms. There are comparatively fewer state controls. Nations like US and UK fall under this category of market. Consequently, US MNEs adopt a short-termist shareholder value mentality which means they are less willing to offer secure employment to their workers. Therefore, management of labour in the US mirrors the economic model of demand and supply, with market determined wages, hire-and-fire practice and many workers employed on a temporary basis. Employers in US are also more resistant to trade union organisations than in other developed industrial democracies and the legal support for trade union organisations and collective bargaining are relatively weak in the US compared to those in other countries. In contrast, in coordinated market economies, firms depend more heavily on non-market relationships to coordinate their activities with other economic actors. These non-market modes means there is greater reliance on private information inside networks and a greater reliance on collaborative relationships. Coordinated market economies are also characterised by a higher degree of government intervention. Countries such as France, Italy and China are examples of such economies. To illustrate, countries like Germany and Japan have adopted the long-termist approach whereby the interests of stakeholders are considered rather than simply of shareholders. This means these MNEs can offer its employees long-term employment. German trade unions are considered as a powerful stakeholder in the labour market and have the right of collective bargaining, i.e. employers need to so consult their workers before any major changes are carried out. To conclude, the basic purpose of examining human resource from a comparative and international perspective is that it contributes to an understanding of the extent to which there are differences between organisations and their subsidiaries located in different countries. The main difference between comparative and international HRM is comparative HRM seeks to explain the differences arising between different business systems while IHRM downplays the importance of host and home country differences. The greater cultural distance between home country and host country, the harder it will be for the MNCs to transfer home country philosophies and practices. This impact on the way HR practitioners have to implement their policies but opens up new avenues for research for the academics.

The One Truth Of Reality Essay -- essays research papers

The One Truth of Reality The one single truth of reality is not measured or distinguished -- it is the ultimate paradox. The journey by which one achieves this truth can be a journey of increasing realizations of paradoxes, and finally, freedom from the bubble of limitation of a mind that would perceive such paradoxes as paradoxes in the first place. Truth is the same as spiritual feeling. Of spiritual perception. Of clear perception. Of freedom of the mind. Freedom of the soul. Freedom of the Heart. It is ultimate love and empathy. The end of struggle. Fully knowing the truth is to be enlightened. Fully realizing the truth is having transcended the distortions of the Machine (see The Machine at my web site given below). Truth means complete fulfillment and true happiness. Truth is impossible to change or destroy -- doing so contradicts the very nature of a single truth from which all things seen through distorted perception stem. Finding truth (and thus everything that it is) is the ultimate subconscious goal of all struggling. The search for truth, the want of truth, paradoxically, most often leads to illusion and darkness and pain. This is the case for the general spiritual state of humanity in the late Twentieth Century. In this way, truth, freedom, love, clear perception, purity, transcendence, and enlightenment are all the very same thing. During the journey, one will no doubt see many facets of truth and see them as separate, distinguished, or part of a duality; but in time, one will see how they all link up and ultimately, how everything is a part of the same thing, and how perceiving everything in terms of truth is transcendence of distinguishment and knowing the truth; and in this way, being enlightened, free, and fulfilled -- attaining the ultimate happiness. Transcendent of the Measurable What is perceived tangibly through the primary five senses (sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell) contradicts the nature of truth which is actually transcendent of all distinguishments in the "more tangible" environment. When a person focuses on what he (or she) sees and reacts to it and especially seeks to control his environment, he lives in a dualistic (or polyistic) state wherein lives his struggle to find non-struggle and peace and fulfillment. The illusion is what is sensed through these five senses and having perceived this as somethin... ... the transcendent planes, including the Mindscape. The Journey The journey is the process of the growth of awareness and insight into ultimate truth. Eventually, this means awareness beyond simple intellectual facts, but an awareness of one's truest self, and thus an awareness into the truest nature of everything. Mentally, this can be perceived, just as feelings can be perceived. To feel free of the struggle of pain and pleasure is to feel the currents of the one's entire being, and in this know oneself; and in this, know the truth; and in this, be truly free; and given an end to the quest for self there is an end to the deepest loneliness (which ultimately is confusion regarding oneself) and the greatest sense of fulfillment. The goal, then, should be to find and submit oneself completely to, like water, the feelings that may be perceived (visualized or seen) by the mind as white light. This is a journey through the maze of walls that are a result of the struggling of the psyche in the midst of the darkness and confusion. The easiest way to find the way out of a maze is to rise above (transcend) it and, seeing the light of the universe beyond, find a path leading to the exit.

Puppy Love Essay

Every day there are animals that are abused and neglected by heartless individuals. We live by the quote, â€Å"A dog is a man’s best friend†. But how is it that one can do such horrid things to a best friend? Puppy mills, animal hoarders, and careless owners are only a few of the biggest contributors to this horrifically criminal act. It breaks my heart to drive to school everyday and be greeted by an animal out on the road flatter than a pancake, or just roaming around looking for scraps of food and darting away anytime a little kid sticks its head out and shouts, â€Å"Oh, what a cute doggy!† And around where I live it is, sadly, an everyday scene. My next door neighbors, whom I classify to be careless pet owners, exemplify what I see everywhere. Their house is falling apart on top of them. The sewer tank leaks and feeds the steroid-like pricker plants that cover most of the backyard. They have 3 puppies of different breeds, from the same mother. I know, it sounds improbable, but I had seen the mother a few times before, when I drove past their house. Let me tell you, she was not the cutest dog on the planet! Anyhow, after discovering my neighbors had puppies in their backyard, it came to mind that I had not seen the mother dog running around for the last few days. I asked with concern, â€Å"Where is their mother?† My neighbor replied with, â€Å"She died†. I found that statement hard to believe. She was so protective that I found that statement very hard to believe. That claim seemed to be vastly illogical. So anyway, for the past 3 months; give or take; my family and I have been setting out fresh water everyday, because we know that they hop the wall either to explore or leave us â€Å"little presents† all over the front yard. Two of the puppies have long fur, which has become matted in several places around their bodies. In addition, on a regular basis; my mom has to cut the prickers that have become entangled in their little paws, around their lips, and buried in their belly. It is very traumatizing to have to see them live in this†¦ well I guess you could consider it to be a sewer pit. Over the summer I had volunteered over at the community animal shelter out of my desire to help out with the animals. Upon my arrival to Pet Guardian Angel, what I thought was going to be a very rewarding experience; where I felt that I was contributing to a good cause, became to be very disheartening. There were so many animals stuck in cages, in their own filth, terrified of human contact and so needy of the human contact they were afraid of. The smell of ammonia made my eyes water and made me feel slightly unwell for several hours after I left the premises. I wondered what the chances were that these helpless beings would find a loving home out here, where the bulk of their peers lived in the same ugly circumstances. Not very good. I left depressed and uncertain if I wanted to come back, but feeling guilty for considering not going back. I feel a great passion for dogs, in particular, who, through no fault of their own, live in filth and know no human kindness for their entire lives. I also feel a great sense of futility. This won’t change until people change their hearts and stop thinking of just themselves, and start unselfishly putting the welfare of the helpless first.

The Rate Of Countries With Climate Change And The Number...

Yes. Evaluate the percentage of countries that are currently strengthening their resilience to climate change, wait x number of years, and then re-evaluate the percentage to see if more countries have indeed strengthened their resilience to climate change. 13.2 Yes. Evaluate the percentage of countries that are currently implementing climate change measures into their policies, wait x number of years, and then re-evaluate the percentage to see if more countries have indeed implemented new climate change policies. 13.3 Yes. Poll the global population to see how aware they are on the subject, wait x number of years, and then re-poll to see if education and awareness on mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning have improved. 13.4 Yes. Since this is about money and money is measurable, the total amount of money raised for developing countries annually will suffice to measure the target. 13.5 Yes. Evaluate the numbers related to deaths of women and children by climate change and the number of deaths in marginalized communities, wait x number of years, re-evaluate those numbers to see if they have gone up or down. If they have gone down, then the target has successfully been implemented. Section 2 13.1 Yes. The Urban Climate Change Governance Survey (UCGS) surveyed 350 cities worldwide to see if city leaders were attempting to strengthen their city’s adaptive capacity to climate change issues [1]. According to the recent study, 76% of cities areShow MoreRelatedThe Most Active Volcano Of The Philippines1179 Words   |  5 Pagesepicenter for earthquakes across the whole country. The climate is mostly hot and humid with monsoon seasons and dry seasons. The climate in the Philippines for most of the year is hot and humid. In June-September, is the rainy season with possibility of typhoons. In October-February, the monsoon from the northeastern side brings is cooler winds which makes the climate cool and dry. In March-May is the summer season which is very hot all over the country. Temperatures during the summer range fromRead MoreWhat Are The Risks Of Climate Change And Global Warming?1508 Words   |  7 Pages What are the risks of climate change and global warming? Type in your name EDRD plus your Section number Type in the Instructor’s name February 20, 2015 Abstract One of the largest problems fronting the world today is global warming. Many experts believe that our makings of carbon dioxide and extra greenhouse gases have a heating effect on the troposphere, and this can be very hazardous to human life. This research paper will explore the issue of global warming and propose ways toRead Moreâ€Å"Up and Down, Up and Down – That Is How Temperature and Climate Have Always Gone in the Past and There Is No Proof They Are Not Still Doing Exactly the Same Now. in Other Words, Climate Change Is an Entirely Natural1451 Words   |  6 Pagesis how temperature and climate have always gone in the past and there is no proof they are not still doing exactly the same now. In other words, climate change is an entirely natural phenomenon, nothing to do with the burning of fossil fuels† (David Bellamy). To what extent do you agree with this statement? The idea of climate change, for many, is an opinionated subject with much discussion of whether it is a real issue or just a natural phenomenon. However in recent years it is clear to see thatRead MoreClimate Change in Peru Essay1516 Words   |  7 Pagesdire situation for Peru in terms of climate change and the effects it has on each individual system as well as the effects on wildlife and human occupants that live in these regions. In Peru, the climate changes that have been taking place have led to several disastrous outcomes that include not only draught, but have also led to depletion of the Amazon Rain Forest, an increase in disease, extreme temperature changes, glacial ablation, extreme weather, and changes in the nations oceans which are homeRead MoreGlobal Population And Climate Change1536 Words   |  7 Pagesnot† (â€Å"Population Quotes†). This is especially evident in the previous two units of study on population and climate change where I have learned a bout a variety of global population trends and how climate change has had a notable effect on the planet. There are currently four main trends that have emerged from the current climate and population changes: migration, declining fertility rates, aging and declining population and urbanization (MacPhail). Migration is the movement of people from oneRead MoreMalaria Is A Major Public Health Concern1379 Words   |  6 Pagesessential in the analysis for the future global transmission rate. In other words, to utilize the information generated by the Hadley Centre global Climate Model (HADCM) 3 programs, we must first understand the characteristics and features of the regions that are currently affected before we can determine the future impact of this disease. Current data indicates that the P. vivax is capable of living in regions with temperate and sub-tropical climate (Martens et al., 1999). In contrast the P. falciparumRead MorePotiential Future Effects of Global Warming1834 Words   |  7 Pages Introduction Climate change is one the biggest threats to nature and mankind in the 21st century. The impacts of climate change are visible everywhere, whether its melting glaciers, rising sea level, severe storms, heavy flooding, reduced snowfall in the north and a severe drought in the south. It will also have a number of effects on the flora and fauna in the future. Scientists predict that global warming in the near future may cause a mass extinction of wildlife, affecting more than 1 millionRead MoreEssay on 5 Factors Affecting Inbound and Domestic Tourism1174 Words   |  5 Pages5 Factors affecting inbound and domestic tourism * Health, safety and security * Economic recession in the UK * Exchange rates * Weather * Accessibility Economic recession in the UK When the UK economy is doing well, its pound sterling is strong. However, having a strong pound actually discourage visitors from overseas because when they exchange their money in pound they will be getting less money, so it make visiting UK expensive and it deter inbound visitor fromRead MoreClimate Change And Global Warming Essay1697 Words   |  7 PagesAbstract Purpose of this research is to discuss the problem of climate change and highlight the importance of sustainable development of resources to reduce or eliminate global warming. This paper also introduces the Paris Agreement to its readers and the research is questioned by asking: What if countries don’t sign Paris Agreement? The information used in this research paper is obtained from the official United Nations website which is the primary source of information for this paper as well asRead MoreOverpopulation And Its Effects On The World1136 Words   |  5 Pageshave been affected by overpopulation already exists in third world countries. So how do we stop this from happening in our own countries? Imagine towns or cities overflowing with people trying to survive, trying to eat and feed their families. People would fight to get the resources they need, crime rate would rise and our city streets would look like a hectic scene from the movies. Human overpopulation occurs when the number of people in a group exceeds the carrying capacity of the region that